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Drosophila Melanogaster

Physical appearance

Male (left) and female D. melanogaster

Wildtype fruit flies have brick red eyes, are yellow-brown in color, and have transverse black rings across their abdomen. They exhibit sexual dimorphism: females are about 2.5 millimeters (0.1 inches) long; males are slightly smaller and the back of their bodies is darker. Males are easily distinguished from females based on color differences, with a distinct black patch at the abdomen, less noticeable in recently emerged flies (see fig), and the sexcombs (a row of dark bristles on the tarsus of the first leg). Furthermore, males have a cluster of spiky hairs (claspers) surrounding the reproducing parts used to attach to the female during mating. There are extensive images at FlyBase.

Life cycle and reproduction

Egg of D. melanogaster

The D. melanogaster lifespan is about 30 days at 29 C (84 F).

The developmental period for Drosophila melanogaster varies with temperature, as with many ectothermic species. The shortest development time (egg to adult), 7 days, is achieved at 28 C (82 F). Development times increase at higher temperatures (30 C (86 F), 11 days) due to heat stress. Under ideal conditions, the development time at 25 C (77 F) is 8.5 days, at 18 C (64 F) it takes 19 days and at 12 C (54 F) it takes over 50 days. Under crowded conditions, development time increases, while the emerging flies are smaller. Females lay some 400 eggs (embryos), about five at a time, into rotting fruit or other suitable material such as decaying mushrooms and sap fluxes. The eggs, which are about 0.5 millimetres long, hatch after 1215 hours (at 25 C (77 F)). The resulting larvae grow for about 4 days (at 25 C) while molting twice (into 2nd- and 3rd-instar larvae), at about 24 and 48 h after hatching. During this time, they feed on the microorganisms that decompose the fruit, as well as on the sugar of the fruit itself. Then the larvae encapsulate in the puparium and undergo a four-day-long metamorphosis (at 25 C), after which the adults eclose (emerge).

Mating fruit flies. Note sexcombs male insert.

Females become receptive to courting males at about 812 hours after emergence. Males perform a sequence of five behavioral patterns to court females. First, males orient themselves while playing a courtship song by horizontally extending and vibrating their wings. Soon after, the male positions itself at the rear of the female’s abdomen in a low posture to tap and lick the female genitalia. Finally, the male curls its abdomen, and attempts copulation. Females can reject males by moving away and extruding their ovipositor. The average duration of successful copulation is 30 minutes, during which males transfer a few hundred very long (1.76 mm) sperm cells in seminal fluid to the female. Females store the sperm in a tubular receptacle and in two mushroom-shaped spermathecae, sperm from multiple matings compete for fertilization. A last male precedence is believed to exist in which the last male to mate with a female sires approximately 80% of her offspring. This precedence was found to occur through displacement and incapacitation.. The displacement is attributed to sperm handling by the female fly as multiple matings are conducted and is most significant during the first 12 days after copulation. Displacement from the seminal receptacle is more significant than displacement from the spermathecae. Incapacitation of first male sperm by second male sperm becomes significant 27 days after copulation. The seminal fluid of the second male is believed to be responsible for this incapacitation mechanism (without removal of first male sperm) which takes effect before fertilization occurs. The delay in effectiveness of the incapacitation mechanism is believed to be a protective mechanism that prevents a male fly from incapacitating its own sperm should it mate with the same female fly repetitively.

History of use in genetic analysis

Drosophila melanogaster was among the first organisms used for genetic analysis, and today it is one of the most widely-used and genetically best-known of all eukaryotic organisms. All organisms use common genetic systems; therefore, comprehending processes such as transcription and replication in fruit flies helps in understanding these processes in other eukaryotes, including humans.

Charles W. Woodworth is credited with being the first to breed Drosophila in quantity and for suggesting to W. E. Castle that they might be used for genetic research during his time at Harvard University. But it was not until 1910 that Thomas Hunt Morgan began using fruit flies in experimental studies of heredity at Columbia University.

Morgan’s laboratory was located on the top floor of Schermerhorn Hall, which became known as the Fly Room. The Fly Room was cramped with eight desks, each occupied by students and their experiments. They started off experiments using milk bottles to rear the fruit flies and handheld lenses for observing their traits. The lenses were later replaced by microscopes which enhanced their observations. The Fly Room was the source of some of the most important research in the history of biology. Morgan and his students eventually elucidated many basic principles of heredity, including sex-linked inheritance, epistasis, multiple alleles, and gene mapping.

“Thomas Hunt Morgan and colleagues extended Mendel’s work by describing X-linked inheritance and by showing that genes located on the same chromosome do not show independent assortment. Studies of X-linked traits helped confirm that genes are found on chromosomes, while studies of linked traits led to the first maps showing the locations of genetic loci on chromosomes” (Freman 214). The first maps of Drosophila chromosomes were completed by Alfred Sturtevant.

Model organism in genetics

D. melanogaster types (clockwise): brown eyes with black body, cinnabar eyes, sepia eyes with ebony body, vermilion eyes, white eyes, and wild-type eyes with yellow body

Drosophila melanogaster is one of the most studied organisms in biological research, particularly in genetics and developmental biology. There are several reasons:

The care and culture requires little equipment and use little space even when using large cultures, and the overall cost is low.

It is small and easy to grow in the laboratory and their morphology is easy to identify once they are anesthetized (usually with ether, carbon dioxide gas, by cooling them, or with products like FlyNap)

It has a short generation time (about 10 days at room temperature) so several generations can be studied within a few weeks.

It has a high fecundity (females lay up to 100 eggs per day, and perhaps 2000 in a lifetime).

Males and females are readily distinguished and virgin females are easily isolated, facilitating genetic crossing.

The mature larvae show giant chromosomes in the salivary glands called polytene chromosomes”puffs” indicate regions of transcription and hence gene activity.

It has only four pairs of chromosomes: three autosomes, and one sex chromosome.

Males do not show meiotic recombination, facilitating genetic studies.

Recessive lethal “balancer chromosomes” carrying visible genetic markers can be used to keep stocks of lethal alleles in a heterozygous state without recombination due to multiple inversions in the balancer.

Genetic transformation techniques have been available since 1987.

Its complete genome was sequenced and first published in 2000.

Genetic markers

Genetic markers are commonly used in Drosophila research, for example within balancer chromosomes or P-element inserts, and most phenotypes are easily identifiable either with the naked eye or under a microscope. In the list of example common markers below, the allele symbol is followed by the name of the gene affected and a description of its phenotype. (Note: Recessive alleles are in lower case, while dominant alleles are capitalised.)

Cy1: curly; The wings curve away from the body, flight may be somewhat impaired.

e1: ebony; Black body and wings (heterozygotes are also visibly darker than wild type).

Sb1: stubble; Hairs are shorter and thicker than wild type.

w1: white; Eyes lack pigmentation and appear white, vision may be somewhat impaired.

y1: yellow; Body pigmentation and wings appear yellow.

Drosophila genes are traditionally named after the phenotype they cause when mutated. For example, the absence of a particular gene in Drosophila will result in a mutant embryo that does not develop a heart. Scientists have thus called this gene tinman, named after the Oz character of the same name. This system of nomenclature results in a wider range of gene names than in other organisms.

Genome

D. melanogaster chromosomes to scale with megabase-pair references oriented as in the National Center for Biotechnology Information database. Centimorgan distances are approximate and estimated from the locations of selected mapped loci.

The genome of D. melanogaster (sequenced in 2000, and curated at the FlyBase database) contains four pairs of chromosomes: an X/Y pair, and three autosomes labeled 2, 3, and 4. The fourth chromosome is so tiny that it is often ignored, aside from its important eyeless gene. The D. melanogaster sequenced genome of 165 million base pairs has been annotated and contains approximately 13,767 protein-coding genes which comprise ~20% of the genome out of a total of an estimated 14,000 genes. More than 60% of the genome appears to be functional non-protein-coding DNA involved in gene expression control. Determination of sex in Drosophila occurs by the ratio of X chromosomes to autosomes, not because of the presence of a Y chromosome as in human sex determination. Although the Y chromosome is entirely heterochromatic, it contains at least 16 genes, many of which are thought to have male-related functions.

Similarity to humans

About 75% of known human disease genes have a recognizable match in the genetic code of fruit flies, and 50% of fly protein sequences have mammalian analogues. An online database called Homophila is available to search for human disease gene homologues in flies and vice versa. Drosophila is being used as a genetic model for several human diseases including the neurodegenerative disorders Parkinson’s, Huntington’s, spinocerebellar ataxia and Alzheimer’s disease. The fly is also being used to study mechanisms underlying aging and oxidative stress, immunity, diabetes, and cancer, as well as drug abuse.

Development

Main article: Drosophila embryogenesis

Embryogenesis in Drosophila has been extensively studied, as its small size, short generation time, and large brood size makes it ideal for genetic studies. It is also unique among model organisms in that cleavage occurs in a syncytium.

Drosophila melanogaster oogenesis

During oogenesis, cytoplasmic bridges called “ring canals” connect the forming oocyte to nurse cells. Nutrients and developmental control molecules move from the nurse cells into the oocyte. In the figure to the left, the forming oocyte can be seen to be covered by follicular support cells.

After fertilization of the oocyte the early embryo (or syncytial embryo) undergoes rapid DNA replication and 13 nuclear divisions until approximately 5000 to 6000 nuclei accumulate in the unseparated cytoplasm of the embryo. By the end of the 8th division most nuclei have migrated to the surface, surrounding the yolk sac (leaving behind only a few nuclei, which will become the yolk nuclei). After the 10th division the pole cells form at the posterior end of the embryo, segregating the germ line from the syncytium. Finally, after the 13th division cell membranes slowly invaginate, dividing the syncytium into individual somatic cells. Once this process is completed gastrulation starts.

Nuclear division in the early Drosophila embryo happens so quickly there are no proper checkpoints so mistakes may be made in division of the DNA. To get around this problem the nuclei which have made a mistake detach from their centrosomes and fall into the centre of the embryo (yolk sac) which will not form part of the fly.

The gene network (transcriptional and protein interactions) governing the early development of the fruit fly embryo is one of the best understood gene networks to date, especially the patterning along the antero-posterior (AP) and dorso-ventral (DV) axes (See under morphogenesis).

The embryo undergoes well-characterized morphogenetic movements during gastrulation and early development, including germ-band extension, formation of several furrows, ventral invagination of the mesoderm, posterior and anterior invagination of endoderm (gut), as well as extensive body segmentation until finally hatching from the surrounding cuticle into a 1st-instar larva.

During larval development, tissues known as imaginal discs grow inside the larva. Imaginal discs develop to form most structures of the adult body, such as the head, legs, wings, thorax and genitalia. Cells of the imaginal disks are set aside during embryogenesis and continue to grow and divide during the larval stages – unlike most other cells of the larva which have differentiated to perform specialized functions and grow without further cell division. At metamorphosis, the larva forms a pupa, inside which the larval tissues are reabsorbed and the imaginal tissues undergo extensive morphogenetic movements to form adult structures.

Behavioral genetics and neuroscience

In 1971, Ron Konopka and Seymour Benzer published “Clock mutants of Drosophila melanogaster”, a paper describing the first mutations that affected an animal’s behavior. Wild-type flies show an activity rhythm with a frequency of about a day (24 hours). They found mutants with faster and slower rhythms as well as broken rhythms – flies that move and rest in random spurts. Work over the following 30 years has shown that these mutations (and others like them) affect a group of genes and their products that comprise a biochemical or biological clock. This clock is found in a wide range of fly cells, but the clock-bearing cells that control activity are several dozen neurons in the fly’s central brain.

Since then, Benzer and others have used behavioral screens to isolate genes involved in vision, olfaction, audition, learning/memory, courtship, pain and other processes, such as longevity.

The first learning and memory mutants (dunce, rutabaga etc) were isolated by William “Chip” Quinn while in Benzer’s lab, and were eventually shown to encode components of an intracellular signaling pathway involving cyclic AMP, protein kinase A and a transcription factor known as CREB. These molecules were shown to be also involved in synaptic plasticity in Aplysia and mammals.

Male flies sing to the females during courtship using their wing to generate sound, and some of the genetics of sexual behavior have been characterized. In particular, the fruitless gene has several different splice forms, and male flies expressing female splice forms have female-like behavior and vice-versa.

Furthermore, Drosophila has been used in neuropharmacological research, including studies of cocaine and alcohol consumption.

Vision

Stereo images of the fly eye

The compound eye of the fruit fly contains 760 unit eyes or ommatidia, and are one of the most advanced among insects. Each ommatidium contains 8 photoreceptor cells (R1-8), support cells, pigment cells, and a cornea. Wild-type flies have reddish pigment cells, which serve to absorb excess blue light so the fly isn’t blinded by ambient light.

Each photoreceptor cell consists of two main sections, the cell body and the rhabdomere. The cell body contains the nucleus while the 100-m-long rhabdomere is made up of toothbrush-like stacks of membrane called microvilli. Each microvillus is 12 m in length and ~60 nm in diameter. The membrane of the rhabdomere is packed with about 100 million rhodopsin molecules, the visual protein that absorbs light. The rest of the visual proteins are also tightly packed into the microvillar space, leaving little room for cytoplasm.

The photoreceptors in Drosophila express a variety of rhodopsin isoforms. The R1-R6 photoreceptor cells express Rhodopsin1 (Rh1) which absorbs blue light (480 nm). The R7 and R8 cells express a combination of either Rh3 or Rh4 which absorb UV light (345 nm and 375 nm), and Rh5 or Rh6 which absorb blue (437 nm) and green (508 nm) light respectively. Each rhodopsin molecule consists of an opsin protein covalently linked to a carotenoid chromophore, 11-cis-3-hydroxyretinal.

Expression of Rhodopsin1 (Rh1) in photoreceptors R1-R6

As in vertebrate vision, visual transduction in invertebrates occurs via a G protein-coupled pathway. However, in vertebrates the G protein is transducin, while the G protein in invertebrates is Gq (dgq in Drosophila). When rhodopsin (Rh) absorbs a photon of light its chromophore, 11-cis-3-hydroxyretinal, is isomerized to all-trans-3-hydroxyretinal. Rh undergoes a conformational change into its active form, metarhodopsin. Metarhodopsin activates Gq, which in turn activates a phospholipase C (PLC) known as NorpA.

PLC hydrolyzes phosphatidylinositol (4,5)-bisphosphate (PIP2), a phospholipid found in the cell membrane, into soluble inositol triphosphate (IP3) and diacylgycerol (DAG), which stays in the cell membrane. DAG or a derivative of DAG causes a calcium selective ion channel known as TRP (transient receptor potential) to open and calcium and sodium flows into the cell. IP3 is thought to bind to IP3 receptors in the subrhabdomeric cisternae, an extension of the endoplasmic reticulum, and cause release of calcium, but this process doesn’t seem to be essential for normal vision.

Calcium binds to proteins such as calmodulin (CaM) and an eye-specific protein kinase C (PKC) known as InaC. These proteins interact with other proteins and have been shown to be necessary for shut off of the light response. In addition, proteins called arrestins bind metarhodopsin and prevent it from activating more Gq. A sodium-calcium exchanger known as CalX pumps the calcium out of the cell. It uses the inward sodium gradient to export calcium at a stoichiometry of 3 Na+/ 1 Ca++.

TRP, InaC, and PLC form a signaling complex by binding a scaffolding protein called InaD. InaD contains five binding domains called PDZ domain proteins which specifically bind the C termini of target proteins. Disruption of the complex by mutations in either the PDZ domains or the target proteins reduces the efficiency of signaling. For example, disruption of the interaction between InaC, the protein kinase C, and InaD results in a delay in inactivation of the light response.

Unlike vertebrate metarhodopsin, invertebrate metarhodopsin can be converted back into rhodopsin by absorbing a photon of orange light (580 nm).

Approximately two-thirds of the Drosophila brain (about 200,000 neurons total) is dedicated to visual processing. Although the spatial resolution of their vision is significantly worse than that of humans, their temporal resolution is approximately ten times better.

Flight

The wings of a fly are capable of beating at up to 220 times per second. Flies fly via straight sequences of movement interspersed by rapid turns called saccades. During these turns, a fly is able to rotate 90 degrees in fewer than 50 milliseconds.

It was long thought that the characteristics of Drosophila flight were dominated by the viscosity of the air, rather than the inertia of the fly body. However, research in the lab of Michael Dickinson has indicated that flies perform banked turns, where the fly accelerates, slows down while turning, and accelerates again at the end of the turn. This indicates that inertia is the dominant force, as is the case with larger flying animals.. Recent work, however, has shown that while the viscous effects on the insect body during flight may be negligible, the aerodynamic forces on the wings themselves actually cause fruit flies’ turns to be damped viscously .

See also

Animal testing on invertebrates

References

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^ a b Raghu P, Colley NJ, Webel R, et al. (2000). “Normal phototransduction in Drosophila photoreceptors lacking an InsP(3) receptor gene”. Molecular and Cellular Neuroscience 15 (5): 42945. doi:10.1006/mcne.2000.0846. PMID 10833300. 

^ Wang T, Xu H, Oberwinkler J, Gu Y, Hardie R, Montell C, et al. (2005). “Light activation, adaptation, and cell survival Functions of the Na+/Ca2+ exchanger CalX”. Neuron 45 (3): 367378. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2004.12.046. PMID 15694299. 

^ Rein, K. and Zockler, M. and Mader, M.T. and Grubel, C. and Heisenberg, M. (2002). “The Drosophila Standard Brain”. Current Biology 12 (3): 227231. doi:10.1016/S0960-9822(02)00656-5. PMID 11839276. 

^ Caltech Press Release 4/17/2003

^ S. Fry and M. Dickinson (2003). “The aerodynamics of free-flight maneuvers in Drosophila”. Science 300 (5618): 4958. doi:10.1126/science.1081944. PMID 12702878. 

^ T. Hesselberg and F.-O. Lehmann (2007). “Turning behaviour depends on frictional damping in the fruit fly “Drosophila”". The Journal of Experimental Biology 210: 431934. doi:10.1242/jeb.010389. 

Further reading

K. Haug-Collet, et al. (1999). “Cloning and characterization of a potassium-dependent sodium/calcium exchanger in Drosophila”. J. Cell Biol. 147 (3): 65970. doi:10.1083/jcb.147.3.659. PMID 10545508. 

R. Ranganathan, et al. (1995). “Signal transduction in Drosophila photoreceptors”. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 18: 283317. doi:10.1146/annurev.ne.18.030195.001435. PMID 7605064. 

Adams MD, et al. (2000). “The genome sequence of Drosophila melanogaster”. Science 287 (5461): 218595. doi:10.1126/science.287.5461.2185. PMID 10731132. 

Kohler, Robert E. (1994). Lords of the Fly: Drosophila genetics and the experimental life. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-45063-5. 

Popular media

“Inside the Fly Lab” – broadcast by WGBH and PBS, in the program series “Curious”, January 2008.

“How a Fly Detects Poison” – WhyFiles.org article describes how the fruit fly tastes a larvae-killing chemical in food.

External links

Wikispecies has information related to: Drosophila melanogaster

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Drosophila melanogaster

A quick and simple introduction to Drosophila melanogaster

FlyBase – A Database of Drosophila Genes & Genomes

NCBI page on Drosophila melanogaster

The WWW Virtual Library: Drosophila

The Berkeley Drosophila Genome Project

FlyMove

The Interactive Fly A guide to Drosophila genes and their roles in development

Drosophila Nomenclature naming of genes

Make Your Own Fruit Fly Trap

Illustrates a simple to make non-toxic Vinegar fly trap

Measurement of Courtship Behavior in Drosophila melanogaster

Maintenance of a Drosophila Laboratory: General Procedures

Transcript In Situ Hybridization of Whole-Mount Embryos for Phenotype Analysis of RNAi-Treated Drosophila

Injection of dsRNA into Drosophila Embryos for RNA Interference (RNAi)

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Major model organisms in genetics

Sheep   Lambda phage  E. coli   Chlamydomonas   Tetrahymena   Budding yeast  Fission yeast  Neurospora   Maize  Arabidopsis  Medicago truncatula  C. elegans   Drosophila   Xenopus  Zebrafish  Rat  Mouse

Categories: Drosophilidae | Model organisms | Sequenced genomes

Question by SarahJ: How sick do you think my dog is? He is 11 months old.?
My dog is an 11 month old German Short hair Pointer and he has been sick for a few days. His symptom are coughing, rattly breathing, spitting up mucus, not eating, and being very tired. He is usually very active and so we are not sure what to do. We can either wait for the vet to get back from vacation or go to the animal hospital. What do you think is wrong with him and what should we do?

Best answer:

Answer by ♥♥
Sounds like your dog could have pneumonia you want to know what i would do

I would of been at the vets days ago when this First started

What do you think? Answer below!

@RonEdmondson This year cross and German Short Hair with an red haired Irish dog and get her a PointSetter! – by theflaggagency (Chuck & Laura Flagg)

Shih Tzu – Tricks And Tools Of Shih Tzu Grooming

Brushing and combing out the Shih Tzu coat of hair is the most laborious and time-consuming chore in Shih Tzu dog grooming. A knowledge of some “tricks of the trade” will help cut down on this labor time, especially so in cases of badly matted Shih Tzu coats. The longer the coat of your Shih Tzu, the greater the potential for matting.

If your Shih Tzu’s coat is very badly matted and tangled there is no alternative but to strip the coat of your Shih Tzu. Stripping the coat of your Shih Tzu means to remove the entire coat with clippers fitted with a fine blade, right down to the skin. If the coat of your Shih Tzu requires stripping, obviously, there is no need for brushing and combing.

Coat conditioner:
If your Shih Tzu’s coat is not so bad, does not require stripping and can be saved, but still bad enough to require considerable brushing and combing, you can saturate the Shih Tzu’s coat with an oil-based coat condition to loosen the knots and tangles and ease the brushing chore. Coat conditioners that contain an oil base are beneficial for both the coat and skin. Mink oil is probably about the best Shih Tzu coat conditioner on the market and especially for a matted Shih Tzu coat. There are other methods professional groomers and handlers use for dealing with matted Shih Tzu coats. This becomes a matter of personal preference between you and your Shih Tzu.

Universal brush:
The Universal brush is a German import and is convex-shaped with fairly long, hard, wire bristles. Its shape and density enable it to pull out the dead hairs of your Shih Tzu more efficiently than any other brush. Unfortunately, it will also pull out the live hairs of your Shih Tzu’s coat and therefore should never be used for a show coat of a Shih Tzu.

Oster mat comb:
The “Oster mat comb is a major product that cuts down on grooming time of your Shih Tzu. The comb is specially designed to cut through knots and tangles and much less time is spent in brushing and combing your Shih Tzu.

The Oster mat comb is used in the following manner:
Grasp the mat comb firmly with thumb resting on the thumbrest and the other fingers around the wooden handle. Place the mat comb directly behind the mat with the teeth flat against the skin. Pull the mat comb forward towards you. If the Shih Tzu coat is heavily matted, try pulling the comb through the Shih Tzu coat with short vertical strokes that should result in slicing the big mat into several smaller ones. Continue the process until you can comb through the coat of your Shih Tzu without catching.

Use your soft wire slicker or Universal brush to brush out all the remaining small mats and comb through the Shih Tzu coat once again, until the comb runs through the shih tzu coat smoothly.

Brushes and combs:
The brush you use to brush your Shih Tzu is most important. A soft wire slicker brush is a happy medium between the too-soft brushes used for Shih Tzu show dogs and the too-harsh slicker brushes sold in most pet stores.

The Universal brush or a fairly large slicker brush with hard fibers is used in cases of badly matted Shih Tzu coats. This type of brush is harsher than the normal slicker and may take our more hair than desired.

The comb of choice for general Shih Tzu use consists of half fine and half coarse teeth and does not have a handle. The best of these types of combs were formerly manufactured in Belgium but American companies now make equally fine combs. The comb can be used for roughing out to finishing touches of your Shih Tzu’s coat.

The mat comb is a companion to the Universal brush for coping with badly matted Shih Tzu coats. The mat comb is heavier with wider-spaced teeth and is not to be confused with the Oster mat comb, which is a tool especially for dealing with very badly matted Shih Tzu coats.

Simple home grooming techniques that will give you a healthier and happier dog

Regularly grooming your dog not only has the added benefit of making him look and smell good; grooming your dog on a regular basis also gives you the opportunity of deepening the bond you have with your pet and for checking his general health.

If you have a puppy, take the time now to help him become accustomed to being groomed. You can do this by simply spending time with your puppy and gently his entire body; examine his tail, paws, ears, and teeth etc. Talk to your puppy in a gentle and positive tone, and have some food treats with you, so as you can reward your puppy for his positive behaviour. If you have an adult dog who is not totally happy with the grooming experience, then go back to the basics, using the plan outlined here.

Although basic grooming procedures are generally the same for all breeds of dogs, the amount of time you will need to devote to grooming your pet and the tools you will use, will depend on the dogs coat quality and it’s length.

Breeds with smooth coats are quite low maintenance, and need only occasional bathing, and brushing. Short coated dogs who have a top coat and a more dense undercoat, for example German Shepherds, will require brushing at least once per day, so as the undercoat does not become matted. Curly coat breeds, for example, the Kerry Blue Terrier, will need to be brushed regularly, along with a bath and coat clipping very couple of months. Breeds that have wiry coats need regular brushing, at lead once per day to prevent matting. The longer coat breeds, such as the Such as Yorkshire Terriers, and Collies, need daily brushing and combing, along with bathing and clipping when needed, in order to keep their coats in good condition.

The tools you will need for grooming will vary depending on your dogs coat, however your dogs grooming kit should include the following:

Natural/organic dog shampoo

You can buy organic dog shampoo from a host of online vendors or large pet supply stores. Using an organic shampoo is much kinder to your dogs skin and fur, as it has the correct ph-balance, and does not contain chemicals, or atrtificial colours or preservative, that can be harmful.

Tweezers

Tick removal implement

Tick removal implements can be purchased from your local pharmacy, however, tweezers work just as well for removing ticks.

Brush, comb and or grooming glove

The brush and comb you choose should be adequate for your dogs coat. For example, for dense coats, use a comb with wider teeth, for smooth coats choose a comb that has closer teeth, alternatively a grooming glove.

Electronic clippers

Nail clippers

A small pair of blunt nosed scissors for clipping away unwanted hair from between your dogs pads, or around the eyes.

Vitamin E oil for cleaning your dogs ears.

Dog toothpaste and toothbrush

Towels for drying your pet following a bath

Organic wipes, for cleaning around your dogs eyes

Now it’s time to begin grooming your dog, so lets begin with the messy part first, bathing.

Bathing

You can do this outside or indoors, depending on the size of your dog. If using the bath, first put down a rubber non slip mat in the bath, so as your pet does not slip around. Put a large cotton ball in each of your dogs ears and place him in the bath.

Begin by covering your dogs entire body with warm water, if you are using a shower, keep the shower head close to the dogs body. Next, add small amounts of your dog shampoo to your dogs body, paying attention to his rectum and genital area, and between his paws. Once you have done this you can rinse your dog thoroughly with warm water.

Towel dry your dog to begin with, then if you wish, use a dryer, however, don’t put the dryer to close to your dogs skin, and don’t point the dryer directly into the dogs ears.

Next, let us look at the general grooming procedure you can make on a more regular basis. To begin with, check your dogs coat for dirt, and parasites such as fleas and ticks. Also check the condition of your dogs skin. When you are happy his skin appears healthy, you can move on to combing his coat.

Combing your dog

Always comb your dogs coat in the direction the hair grows, combing small section at a time. If you encounter a knot in your pets fur, use the first tooth of the comb to gently tease the knot free. Hold the base of the knot as you do this, so as not to cause your dog any pain.

Brushing your dog

The next step is to brush your dogs fur gently, but not so vigorously as you will cause ‘brush burn’. Brush your dogs fur in the opposite direction hair growth. Attend to all areas of the body, ie, body, tail, chest, legs and behind the ears. When doing this part check your dogs paws and between his pads for any lodged seeds from grass, grit and dirt etc. Clean and trim any excess fur.

Having done the hardest work, brushing and combing. The next part to concentrate upon is nail clipping. Most dog owners avoid clipping their dogs nails, many leaving it to their vet, but with a bit of practice, trimming your dogs nails will become a routine procedure.

Cutting your dogs nails

Check to begin with to see if your dogs nails need trimming. Dogs usually wear down their nails by walking on the pavement, however, they still may need a trim every several weeks or so.

To begin with, identify the quick in each nail; the quick is the blood vessel inside the nail. It can be seen quite easily in light coloured nails as a red coloured line, but impossible to see in dark nails. Care must be taken not to cut into the blood vessel, as this will obviously be painful for your dog, and will also cause some bleeding.

Cut the nail in one stroke below the blood vessel. In darker nails, make several vey small cuts. If your not sure how much nail to cut if you have a dog with black nails, less is better than more.

Cleaning your dogs ears

It’s now time to move on to your dogs ears. Wax, dirt and fungus can build up in a dogs, especially in the case of floppy eared breeds. During the grooming process check your dogs ears for signs of wax and dirt etc. Smell inside your dogs ears, a foul odour, could mean your pet has an infection, especially id he has been scratching his ears, or shaking his head a lot. To clean your dogs ears, use a natural cleanser, such as an essential oil blend. You can use the following blend to clean your dogs ears, and keep them free from wax build up and infection.Put a little of the blend on a cotton ball and clean each ear.

Ear cleaning essential oil blend

2 drops Roman Chamomile

2 drops tee tree

4 drops lavender

Mix with 20 mls of Sweet Almond or Jojoba oil. Pour into a dark bottle and keep out of sunlight or in the refrigerator. This will last several moths. Use the blend to clean your dogs ears each time you groom him.

Cleaning your dogs eyes

Finally, let us look at cleaning your dogs eyes. It is important to clean your pets eyes regularly, in most breeds this can be done during the normal grooming session, however, with breeds who’s tear ducts can become blocked easily, cleaning around the eyes will need to be done more regularly.

Check your pets eyes for signs of discharge, especially in the corner of the eye. Use your blunt nose scissors to gently clip away unwanted hair, especially at the corner of each eye. When this is done, gently clean around each eye with a wet cloth or an organic baby wipe. These type of wipes are especially good for cleaning your dogs sensitive areas, such as around the eyes, as they contain no alcohol, or other ingredient that is harmful to the dog.

Job done. The more often you groom your dog, the quicker it will seem to become. Having said this, your dogs physical and emotional well being depends on being kept clean and healthy, so make grooming an extra special and fun time for you and your dog.

The Burgeoning Of The Headdress In Medieval And Renaissance Fashion

Throughout the history of clothing, the headdress has been part and parcel of proper attire. It was an essential accessory on one’s person ever since people began to develop a sense of clothing in medieval times going toward a more decorative trend in the duration of the Renaissance and even the next century after.

Perhaps wearing some sort of head covering emerged when mankind began declaring war on one another, primarily as a form of protection for the head. Eventually, when Christianity was introduced and spread throughout early medieval civilization, people, notably women, began to include some kind of head covering in their medieval clothingconcerns.

Middle Ages Headgear

In the late High Middle Ages, the Western world began to dress in what can definitively be recognizable fashion. While it was acceptable for Italian women to have uncovered hair, women elsewhere in Europe wore a succession of headdresses, from the wimple to the barbet and fillet, a band passed under the chin and a headband to secure a linen cap or coif and a veil. As well, thick hairnets known as crespines confined the hair to the sides of the head. At this time, men were walking around in Tristan clothing with heads uncovered.

When the 15th century came in, it ushered in extremes and extravagances in the form of voluminous medieval dresses called houppelandes and saw increasing importance in headdresses that became more and more elaborate, jeweled and feathered. The crespine became a bejeweled mesh caul, which gathered the hair neatly to the back of the head. The most extravagant headdress was the hennin, a cone-shaped cap with a wired frame covered in fabric and topped with a veil. Men now wore doublets and hose characteristic of late medieval men’s clothes, displaying headdress extravagance with tall-crowned hats with short brim or without brim.

The Golden Era of the Headdress

When the Renaissance era dawned on Western civilization, headgear burgeoned into its elaborate best. As the different regions of the Old World began to develop their own styles of Renaissance clothing, a variety of headdresses thrived with their matching dresses. Unique to England was the gable hood, a wired headdress shaped like the gable of a house. It had embroidered lappets framing the face and a loose veil behind. The French hood concurrently became popular in France, arched in shape and placed further back of the head to show center-parted hair that were pinned and twisted beneath the veil.

Men, on the other hand, wore large pancake-shaped hats to complete their Tudor clothesas inspired by Henry VIII. The German barrett, with a turned-up brim, was particularly fashionable throughout the period. The trendsetting Henry VIII himself and his courtiers wore a similarly flat hat with a “halo” brim.

By the time Elizabeth I became a prominent fashion influence, headdresses were reduced to decorative accessories to complete Renaissance costumes. Cauls and coifs still endured in women’s fashion strictly to keep elaborate hairstyles in place, while men’s hats derived from the flat hat its gathered crown but eventually became taller. A bit later, the conical capotain became fashionable. Nevertheless, all hats were decorated with a jewel or a feather.

Doberman Pinscher Dog Breed Information

Dobermans are most recognizable as being black and tan in color but they can also come in blue and fawn but these colors are disqualifications in dog shows, there is also a rare white (albino) Doberman. They are a medium to large dog standing up to 20 inches tall, although there is no strict standard weight, they should not weigh more than 110lbs and should not weigh less as their size can determine their strength. They have long, straight and muscular legs that should be parallel and strong, they also have a long neck and face, by breed standards they should also have the characteristic spots above their eyes, which look almost like eyebrows. Their coat should be short and glossy to look at. Dobermans are very elegant to look at, and often have their tails docked and their ears cropped which have come to be part of their most well known characteristics. However, in most countries both these practices have been banned.

History. The Doberman to this day is credited to a man named Louis Dobermann, he was a tax collector in Germany and developed the breed to use as his guard dog, he used a verity of dogs that each had unique traits that he wanted for his ‘new’ dog. Although which breeds he used for certain are not completely known, it is known that he used a Rottweiler, a Great Dane, a Manchester Terrier, a Greyhound and the German Sheppard. There are also a few other breeds thought to be in the Dobermans heritage but it’s not certain. Louis Doberman first started work on the breed in the late 1800′s and in 1889 they were officially recognized by the German Kennel Club. They were often used as police dogs and also tracking dogs, the breed developed in America after the 1st World War as many American soldiers became so attached to the breed they took them home with them.

Temperament. Unfortunately, Dobermans have a reputation for being an aggressive attack dog, however this is not the dogs fault and the blame for an overly aggressive Doberman usually lies with the owner. They are not the right dog for a first time dog owner, however if given proper training and exercise, they can be wonderful dogs. They are highly intelligent and several studies have shown that they are in fact one of the most trainable dogs. They are protective animals and love to please their owners, they can often become a one man dog, choosing preference to one person over all others and forming a close bond. They can be very excitable at times, so they need a handler who can be in control and let the dog know who’s in command, though as with all dogs you should never be aggressive or abusive to them. They need to start training from a young age, and need to be kept active, if they are not well trained they can develop behavioral problems which has led to them being stereotyped as an aggressive dog. They can also become highly distressed if left alone for too long.

Health Issues. Dobermans have been proven to suffer from prostatic disease more than any other breed, they can also suffer from hip dysplasia and Willebrand’s disease, Willebrand’s is a genetic disease that causes a bleeding disorder, there is genetic testing that can be done to check all Dobermans for this disease. They are also very susceptible to the cold so should be kept warm.

Grooming. Dobermans require very little grooming as their coat is so short, however a good brush once a week will help to remove loose or dead hair and also encourage the skin to produce their natural oils that keep the coat healthy and shiny.

Living Conditions. The Doberman is best suited to somewhere with a medium sized garden, however they could live in an apartment, as long as they have good regular exercise. They can be good with other animals, although this is not always true so wouldn’t necessarily be a good idea, unless they were raised together.

Question by bigbo4988: Can I use dog clippers on my short haired german shepard?
For the amount of hair my dog sheds, Can I groom her hair to about a 1/4 inch long? Any input?

Best answer:

Answer by puppchowluv
my best guess would be to ask your vet and i wouldnt try it on my own because your might cut in ti the dogs blood stream in the nail.

What do you think? Answer below!